sculpture of the god Mithras sacrificing the Toro ... British Museum As in all Mediterranean civilizations of antiquity in Rome also worshiped the Bull.
evolution, with the passing of the centuries and civilizations, had been observed in Mediterranean coastal regions worsened in Ancient Rome. In their religion, as happened in the Greek gods were anthropomorphic (human form), which departed from the divine pantheon to Toro, but remained associated with this animal the same concepts and values \u200b\u200bthat already had been attributed to other Mediterranean religions, so that the Bull was still regarded in Rome as a sacred animal and quintessential scapegoat for sacrifice.
Besides the official religion in ancient Rome had a number of other major religions, mostly mystery, the most prominent of them all the Mithraism, in which the bull was also the sacred symbol.
On the other hand, as happened on the island of Crete and the Greek cities such as Larissa, in Rome also held shows or games in which bulls were involved. But it is in this section where there is a shift more particularized compared to other Mediterranean civilizations, since games with bulls from Rome came to lose its religious connotations and became a mere show fun.
The sacrifice of bulls in the religion of Rome
taurobolium ... Author: Bernhard Rode Toro's relationship with the cultures emphasis goes back to its earliest times. Thus, Franz Altheim points out in his History of Rome that the bulls were very numerous in the Italian peninsula, and were always considered as a representation of divinity, to the extent that the actual Italian name derived from " vítuliu " the land of the " italoi ", which would mean the country of calves, bulls or the descendants of the bull-god.
the same lines, have been preserved archaeological remains such as the Tomb of the Bulls (mid-sixth century BC), which demonstrate a cult of the Bull by the Etruscans, an ancient Italic people who had their territory seat in the center of the peninsula.
The religion of Rome is the result of a merger of ideas of different peoples that contributed to its formation as a state, and the Hellenistic influence was one of the most important. So, as happened in Greece, the gods of Roman religion was anthropomorphic, but this did not lead to the Toro remain deprived of esteemed as a sacred animal.
For his strength, power and value fertilizing material, the cattle was regarded in Rome as the most valuable sacrifices to the gods or for the holidays over the agricultural cycle in which fertility rites were practiced. And, as evidence of the importance that is granted, it should be noted that he was not elected as a species, generally speaking, but he came to select up to individual factors such as race, age, sex and coat.
Thus, in general, in Rome were sacrificed male gods, goddesses and females, including pregnant cows rites in which "a fertile land was offered a victim fruitful", as stated by Francisco J. Rill flowers in his book Del Toro in Antiquity: animal worship, sacrifice, hunting and party.
And, as indicated by Pedro Fernández Sáez On the Feast of the Bulls in the Roman world , cattle were slaughtered white layer to the sky gods, the black layer and burial ground, and red cape to Vulcan to be the god of fire.
should be noted that in all these sacrificial rites played a very important ingredient blood transmitter power and fertility, as well as life-giving substance element that allowed the rite of passage in baptisms. Thus, at least, appears in the rite called " taurobolium ", celebrated as defending a doctrinal line, in the worship of the goddess Cybele.
goddess Cibeles , originally from Asia Minor, was the Great Mother of gods and personified the creative force of nature. Next to her was Atis, with which it formed a couple. Even if your worship had connotations of mystery, Cybele became a national Roman goddess whose feast day is celebrated on the vernal equinox and whose cult is usually stand out as most significant ritual taurobolium .
As shown in the engraving of Bernhard Rode, the taurobolium was an initiation rite in which the candidate was introduced in a pit whose top was covered with a wooden plank, properly drilled, and on the platform were sacrificed a bull for the blood spilled slinks through the holes and, as a cleaner, spray on the head and body of the initiate.
was, without doubt, the staging of a baptism, a ritual regenerative life and, more specifically, of spiritual regeneration. Another line
doctrinal claims that this rite of taurobolium not belong to the mysteries of Cybele, but those of Mitra.
The cult of Mithras
Mitreo of the city of Ostia is called "Mithraism " and also " mysteries of Mithras, a religion of mystery that was very connotations widespread in the Roman Empire between the first and fourth centuries AD, in which a deity worshiped called Mitra, and which had a prominent role as animal Toro and concepts linked to the sacred symbol of fertility.
There is little documentation to provide us with reliable news about the beliefs and rituals of Mithraism, as the cult had no written body of doctrine, rituals were secret and only passed on orally among initiates. However, archaeological remains related to the practice of worship in many parts of the empire, consisting of natural caves or underground constructions with this appearance, as well as inscriptions and artwork that are serving researchers to develop theories regarding contents of this religion.
Mitra was originally one of the oldest Indo-European deities, a member of the pantheon was common between northern India and Iran. The oldest testimony mentioned Mitra is a tablet from Boghaz-Koy, in Anatolia, now Turkey, in which God is invoked as the guarantor of a treaty between the Hittites and Mitanni. This tablet can be dated at 1380 BC, according to Juan Ramón Carbó indicates Garcia Oriental Cults in Roman Dacia .
In India maintained the cosmic order and guarding the morality and religious behavior. In the Persian Empire was watching over the order of society and was guardian of the treaties and agreements, extending its influence in the negotiations and contracts, including marriage. On the other hand, also personified as the Light appears in continuous battle with the dark, or assimilated to the Sun what he identifies as a generator of life. Furthermore, in the great hymn of Mitra is related to the reproduction of nature.
When Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire (330 BC), the cult of Mithra persisted in some of its regions, but has not yet been possible to demonstrate the direct link, if any, that this cult would followed from the local temporary space to Mithraism is professed in Rome centuries later. The
known as "mysteries of Mithras " emerged in Rome in the second half of the first century AD, and from there spread throughout the length and breadth of the Empire, more or less depending on the presence regions. In this regard it should be noted that Mithraism was a religion exclusively for males, and deeply rooted in the Roman army. Thus, in general, Mithraism did not reach great importance where the army's presence was not relevant, and, by contrast, had a significant presence in border provinces, where legions stationed, such as the northern border Empire on the Rhine and Danube.
The cult of Mithra was spreading throughout the Empire in the mid second century AD, quickly reaching its maximum geographical extent: from the Rhine and Danube to the Nile, and from Britain to Syria. However, its maximum would peak in the third century AD
After a period of stagnation in its spread and rise in the fourth century AD Mithraism was revived, in addition to many traditional Roman religion as a protest against increased rigidity of the posture of the emperors in religious matters, which came to favor the strong Christianity.
But this revival of the cult of Mithra was a passenger, since there is no evidence attesting to their continuity in the V century AD, which has led the writers to set their disappearance at the beginning of the same or even in the late IV AD, after being outlawed all pagan religions by Emperor Theodosius in 394 AD AD
Despite this long history of more than three centuries Mithraism was never an official cult in Rome. This does not exclude that some emperors and his inner circle feel sympathy for him, give him protection and even they were initiated into the mysteries of Mithras.
cult was reserved exclusively for men and practiced in the field of small autonomous groups of initiates who were organized as a fraternity and were ranked in seven grades of initiation, we know for a text of St. Jerome, Epistle CVII - Ad Laetam , and confirmed by inscriptions. Would be: corax (Raven), cryphius (hidden) thousands (soldier), read (lion), Perses (Persian) heliodromus (emissary of the sun) and pater (father).
The ceremonial worship of Mithra were held in underground places were called mithraeum, consisting of natural caves or underground constructions with the same appearance, and reproduced in symbolic form the vault of heaven and image universe. Mithraeum is characteristic of its space was very limited. In the city of Rome have found about sixty, among which stand out for its location the Circus Maximus. It is very remarkable also mithraeum the Baths of Caracalla, as is large and constitutes the entire exception. However, Paloma Aguado Garcia, The cult of Mithras at the time of Caracalla , pointed leaves the possibility that these are not a mithraeum, but a Serapeum for rituals of the god Serapis .
But whether it was a mithraeum as if it was a Serapeum, what is certain is that this building is inside the Baths of Caracalla was a center where a deity worshiped taurine. As we saw in the Cult Toro in Egypt, Serapis was a bull-god of Egyptian origin and influence Hellenistic, whose cult spread to Rome. Therefore, the cult of Serapis was practiced in the Roman Empire continues to be another variant of worship Toro.
In regard to values, beliefs and rituals of Mithraism, we must insist that no texts have been bequeathed to us the mysteries of Mithras, so that scholars have been forced to attempt a reconstruction with information you provide, mainly, its iconography, which maintained a relative uniformity in the manifestations found throughout the empire. Since there is no such ideological reconstruction with indubitable documentary basis and in any case, since here we are interested focus on issues that place the Toro as an object or part of religious worship, do not affect those aspects of Mithraism and focus on the Mithraic iconography, in which the bull comes into the picture. Mitra
killing at Toro ... Tauroctony the Vatican Museums The essential and fundamental issue of Mithraic iconography is the scene of the tauroctony, death or slaughter at the hands of the Bull of Mithras, which are the two main figures are represented, although there are some more.
According to legend, the god Mithra, Light, born inside a rock at the edge of a spring and under sacred tree. When you came into this world, Mitra was naked, wearing only his head covered with a hat typical of the region of Phrygia (in Anatolia, now Turkey), was armed with a knife and carrying a torch, which was to be had illuminated in the dark interior of the rock.
This event happened to coincide with the winter solstice, and thus its holding in the Persian Empire was established on 25 December.
Some shepherds watch their flocks by that area witnessed the birth of Mithras to this world worshiped him and presented him with gifts.
Then Mitra drank spring water and ate the fruits of sacred tree, covered his nakedness with leaves of the tree and from then on, began to roam the world to measure the strength of his power.
Thus, when Mitra was found with the bull, grabbed the animal by the horns and rode him. The bull tried to overthrow Mitra, but he grabbed and held firmly until the bull riding was exhausted. Then, Mitra loaded the animal on his shoulders and carried him to the cave where he had fixed his abode.
Over time, the bull and the god fled Hormuz to the cave sent a crow to tell Mitra had to go back to capture the bull sacrifice. When he returned to find Mitra, jumped on him and, after hold, he plunged his knife into the side. In that moment, the body of the bull sprout grain of wheat, which are the bread and wine became blood as shed.
mithraeum
All were presided over by a sculpture or a relief with this tauroctony. And the bull, all of them, is always depicted with white coating.
Many works preserved by the Mithraic iconography. In the most complete, in addition to Mithras and the Bull, there are other figures: two human characters and, above all, a dog that jumps up to lick the wound of the bull, a snake crawls on the floor trying to crawl through the belly of animal and scorpion clinging to the testes. In other also incorporated a crow and a lion.
on the meaning of all the iconography and every one of his figures have been developed particularized multitude of theories and merely summarize the text would make it very long. Moreover, in this respect, the conclusion of Israel Campos Méndez, in his The cult of the god Mithras in Ancient Iran and the Roman Empire: analysis and review of the elements of continuity is that the very different explanations have been devised could complicate what will surely come to be more easy for men of the time, "identification of the episode of sacrifice the bull as a mythical event that came to mean an allegory of the life cycle, the start of regeneration and salvation of all creation. "
To conclude this section, that there will be found difficult to detect in it some similarities between Mithraism and Christianity: the birth of the god on December 25th, the adoration of the shepherds, or even the sacrifice of a "being" to regenerate the world, with the allegory of your body is the bread and his blood is wine, and the faithful celebration of its various rituals and banquets (or dinner) to mark these assets to the respective sacrifices either .
Indeed
. And there are many more similarities if we examine the issue. The funny thing also is that Mithraism and Christianity were the two most important unofficial cults in Rome, and competed in attracting adherents until Theodosius imposed Christianity throughout the Empire. In this regard, many analysts believe that, had it not been so, the Latin cultures, rather than Christian, could have ended up Mithraic. And this would mean that the bull would be in them the sacred symbol par excellence.
Bulls games in Rome: venationes
Author: Antonio Niccolini ... ... Bridgeman Art Library At first, the "games" held in Rome were functions that had a religious significance. Offered to the gods and, in some of its forms, was an equivalent to the sacrifices. But the celebrations of the games were increasing with the passing of time, and became organized on the basis of reasons that had nothing to do with religion: political, war memorials of deeds, or even by simply providing the people the show with the most enjoyed and most demanded. And games with the intervention of bulls were only one of its varieties.
So Bulls games in the Roman Empire were becoming a fun show, and came to lose all the religious connotation that they had been attributed in the early days of Rome and other ancient Mediterranean civilizations.
Of all the games that were held in circuses and the Roman Amphitheatre, the most closely watched by the public were the gladiator fights and horse races, but also had a lot of notoriety so-called " venationes " (from venatio,-onis , hunting), which were those which involved exotic and wild animals. There
venationes of various types:
1) Exhibits of exotic animals and strangers that were found by legions were pushing the boundaries of the empire. Generally, wild animals, but also some that are getting trained.
2) Fighting between wild animals, which were reached by tying the two ends of one string to ensure that rushed between them.
In this variant was very common to use other animals faced bulls, bears, rhinos, elephants, lions ...
Detail mosaic with a scene of combat between a bear and a bull 3) Offices within the enclosure, but with total realism, hunting of wild beasts by men who received two different types of names: bestiarii and Venator.
Paphos. Mosaic from the House of Dionysus, as Karageorgis
In this variant of the hunts were also widely used bulls, who tried to kill the Venator armed with spears, usually, and always coming from the front. There are also credited testimony that sometimes use a cloth, like a crutch, to lead the onslaught of the bulls.
4) shows in which men on foot and horseback practiced different sets and lots front a bull. This variant was more specifically the taurine of all that took place.
As tested on a painted cipo Thina City (Tunisia), in the territory that dominated the Roman Empire continued to make some lots are bullfighting and previously practiced in other civilizations of antiquity, as the jump of the bull run on the Minoan civilization (see the chapter of Cult in Crete Toro), or the demolition and immobilization of the bulls by the men who began their participation on horseback and then pounce on the head and the antlers of the animal, which was a type of game and practiced in Larisa and other Greek cities under the name of taurokathapsia (see the chapter of the Cult Toro in Greece). 
But besides those already mentioned, works have been preserved indicate the practice of other forms of luck, as we now know as the pole and jump in the Justinian Code was cited as " contomonobolon "(as Pedro Sáez Fernández, op. cit., About the party ...). What is impossible to clarify is whether this last chance was Roman invention, if it was imported from a particular region or, as is more probable, if this is a kind of jump as basic and primitive that could be practiced since ancient times in any place where a man was confronted by a bull or even worked with him.
5) Finally, and also within the framework of the games, other shows with wild animals was being offered, rather than an actual game mode, the execution of one of the most cruel sentences imposed by the law Roman, reserved for the worst criminals of the era: the death sentence for the attack of wild beasts (ad damnatio beasts ").
is a well known figure of doomed to be thrown into the circus to lions without any defense to try to avoid the fact end up being devoured. Sometimes it even gets to tie the condemned to a pole to ensure a faster and more efficiently. But the lion was not the only animals used in Rome for this purpose. Bulls were also used.
One method used was to tie the condemned to the back of a bull or a zebu and exposing them together to attack other wild animals. Another method was used in the case of several condemned together by strong bonds: one is tied to a pole and another was let loose in the sand to defend the first of the onslaught of bull to let go, either by distracting its attention with some luck a clean body, or even trying to hobble the animal (in the 1951 version of the film "Quo Vadis " recreates a condemnation of this kind in one scene). As a final example of ad damnatio beasts, also followed the method of exposing the onslaught of a bull to a convicted wrapped and bound by a network.
If, as stated, these performances were, in essence, a sacrifice or reminiscent of them, it is interesting to note as the bulls change their role in such cases "sacrifices" of Rome, because traditional scapegoat became the executioner.
In conclusion, it remains to insist that Rome also worshiped the Bull, but definitely had an impact on the ideological line to put the bull Greek, rather than as divinity itself, as a sacred symbol and scapegoat for excellence in religious sacrifices. And, in reference to Bulls games in Rome, noted that while Flores Rill (op. cit., Del Toro in antiquity ... ) argues that the games continued to have some religious connotation, even a both evening, from my point of view is much more real view of Ludwig Friedländer, who begins his work entitled Games and Entertainment Roman ensuring that the games they lost all religious significance, not the corrupt days of Imperial Rome, but even before, in the last days of the republic. Lagun
NOTE: At the bottom left of the images containing the information regarding the authors of the works and the museum or where they are exposed (to the extent that I managed to find this data) . Regarding the black and white image with venatio the bull and the other two with breaks, leave indicated that they are taken from the article by Pedro Fernández Sáez On the Feast of the Bulls in the Roman world , which is published in “ celtiberia.net ”.
Con todo ello, solicito a los autores, así como a los propietarios de los derechos de autor de cada una de las imágenes, que me permitan mantenerlas en este texto, puesto con esta bitácora no tengo fines lucrativos y se han incluido para facilitar a los lectores una mayor comprensión de la materia.
